What Can Teachers Learn From 35 Washback Studies?
Davy Tran, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, USA
Background Information on Washback
Washback is defined as the effects of tests on learning and teaching (Alderson & Wall, 1993). For instance, if students are required to take a speaking exam at the end of the semester, they are likely to focus on developing their speaking skills to achieve a high score. Similarly, the exam may influence how teachers approach instruction. Teachers might prioritize content that aligns closely with the test or to prepare students for the exam. According to Alderson and Wall (1993), washback can be either positive or negative. For instance, a speaking test that requires students to produce responses in English can create positive washback as it encourages students to develop speaking skills that might be overlooked in classroom instruction. Conversely, a writing test composed solely of multiple-choice questions may result in negative washback. In this case, students may focus on drilling for the test by practicing similar multiple-choice questions instead of developing their actual writing skills. This can hinder students’ overall English development.
Interested in the concept of washback, I spent several months reviewing research on the topic and selected these 35 studies because they represent the diversity of washback research. These studies span a timeline from 1990 to 2021 and were conducted in various countries. The two most popular contexts are Korea and China, each of which was researched in five studies. Moreover, these 35 studies were published in different formats, such as journal articles, book chapters, and dissertations. They also researched various types of tests. Regarding the tests examined in these studies, standardized tests such as IELTS and TOEFL were frequently investigated. Other studies focused on high-stakes English tests in different countries in the world, such as national exit examinations, including the School Leaving Certificate Exam in Nepal and the Secondary School Certificate examination in Bangladesh. Additionally, some studies analyzed tests of smaller scales, such as English final exams at schools or graduation tests at specific universities.
Key Findings on Washback
Based on the review of these studies, some conclusions were reached. First, some tests, such as the EFL National Oral Matriculation Test in Israel and the General Multimedia Assisted Test of English in Korea, have washback on learning and teaching. Meanwhile, other tests, including the General English Proficiency Test in Taiwan and the National Matriculation English Test in China, do not exert any washback. This may suggest that washback is influenced by various factors, including the type and content of the tests, as well as the unique cultural contexts of the countries in which the tests are administered.
Second, washback is mediated by personal characteristics. Specifically, it is generally agreed that tests do not have much washback on teaching methods. Teachers' methods are influenced by personal factors, including their perspectives, educational experiences, and professional backgrounds, which often make them resistant to change (Watanabe, 2004). Interestingly, while tests don’t affect teaching methods, tests influence teaching content. Teachers often modify their teaching materials to align with test content, focusing on tasks and subject matter similar to those on the test while preserving their teaching methods.
Next, washback is mediated by the micro-context of the tests. In the micro-context, whether tests produce washback on learning and teaching depends largely on the program administering the test. For example, Anand (2018) studied the old and new versions of an English test in an English for Academic Purposes program. While the new test version had the potential to generate positive washback, contextual factors, such as the power dynamics within the program, impeded its effectiveness. In this program, administrators wielded more authority than teachers, dictating what the tests were made up of and how they were graded. As a result, teachers felt that although the new test could promote positive washback, its impact would have been greater if their input had been considered.
Moreover, tests are mediated by the macro-contexts. In terms of macro-context, some tests exert washback because they are embedded in societies that highly value tests and equate them with success. For example, in countries such as Korea and Bangladesh, academic grades are highly esteemed, leading to the perception that tests are crucial. Thus, in these contexts, tests tend to produce strong negative washback effects as the pressure for high scores can adversely impact pedagogy. Teachers may prioritize test preparation over developing essential English skills.
Suggestions for Teachers
First, the reviewed studies demonstrate that English tests can have certain washback, whether positive or negative, on teaching and learning. Therefore, teachers should consider the potential influence of tests used in their classrooms and aim to design tests that promote positive washback. According to Pearson (1988), a test can achieve positive washback if it aligns with the goals of the course. Thus, it is crucial to establish clear and appropriate course objectives. For instance, in an English writing course, objectives might include helping students develop their writing skills, such as crafting topic sentences, maintaining cohesion within paragraphs, and using academic language effectively. Correspondingly, test tasks might include writing paragraphs, selecting appropriate connectors (e.g., “however” or “in addition”), and correcting informal words in sentences. Other tasks, such as those requiring students to answer multiple-choice questions on grammar or vocabulary, can lead to negative washback if these tasks make up the majority of the assessment.
Moreover, administering various tests throughout the semester is essential. Relying on one or two major tests may lead students to focus solely on drilling test items for good grades rather than mastering essential language skills such as writing or speaking. Furthermore, test tasks should closely align with classroom activities. Teachers can integrate these tasks into their lessons, enabling students to practice and become familiar with the test format. In such cases, tests can generate positive washback as students will not need to seek out additional test-specific content or study exclusively for the test. Instead, they will feel more at ease preparing for the test and studying other important content of the lesson.
Additionally, it is noted that washback is mediated by factors such as personal attributes and the micro- and macro-contexts of tests. Therefore, teachers should reflect on their perceptions of testing; they should consider the number of tests to administer, the types of questions to include, and the rubrics to use. It is noted that professional development opportunities, such as reading relevant literature or attending workshops, can be valuable for helping teachers update their knowledge and assess their assessment practices. As a result, it is essential for teachers to dedicate time to pursuing these opportunities. For instance, in the U.S., the TESOL International Association offers membership to teachers worldwide and publishes books on various topics, including language assessment. Additionally, workshops on language assessment are provided by institutions such as the Center for Applied Linguistics in the US. As far as I know, U.S. embassies in different countries also organize free workshops on language teaching, including language assessment. Following these embassies on social media can be a great way to stay informed about upcoming opportunities.
Next, many studies consistently show that tests influence teaching content, and teachers often adapt their materials to align with test content. While it is essential to provide students with tasks similar to those on the test, teachers should include activities that develop important language skills, such as speaking and writing. For example, Choi (2008) found that Korean students perceive English tests like TOEFL or IELTS as detrimental to their learning because these tests prioritize multiple-choice questions over practice exercises that enhance writing and speaking skills. Teachers should thus aim to strike a balance, ensuring that their lessons address both test preparation and broader language development.
Finally, washback remains a significant area of research. It has been studied since the 1990s and may continue to attract attention. Thus, teachers are encouraged to engage with washback research to deepen their understanding of this concept and its implications for their teaching practices. Such research can inspire teachers to critically examine their tests and explore ways to improve them. Furthermore, teachers can participate in projects related to the development and validation of English tests. These projects often seek teacher input for test revisions, which may increase the likelihood of these tests achieving positive washback.
Addressing Washback in My Teaching
Based on the findings above, I have developed and implemented several strategies in my teaching. First, I aim to design tests that promote positive washback. According to Pearson (1988), for a test to have positive washback, it must align with the course goals. I currently teach academic writing to international and multilingual students in the English department at the University of Virginia, where I have designed assessments that align with the course objectives. One of the shared goals of writing courses in the department is to develop appropriate structural and stylistic elements as well as clarity, flow, and tone of writing. To support this goal, I design writing assessments that evaluate these aspects. For instance, the final exam requires students to write a five-paragraph argumentative essay. The essay must be well-organized, with a clear introduction, body, and conclusion. Additionally, the writing style should be formal, the language must be straight-forward and precise, sentences should transition smoothly, and the overall tone should be persuasive.
Besides, to prevent students from focusing solely on test preparation for the sake of grades, I incorporate a variety of assessments, including quizzes, writing exams, projects, peer reviews, and portfolios. There are only two exams, midterm and final, each of which accounts for just five out of 100 total points of the course. Moreover, I design test tasks that closely mirror classroom activities. For instance, I instruct students on the elements of a paragraph, including the topic sentence, supporting sentences, and concluding sentence, as well as three persuasive techniques, such as ethos, pathos, and logos. After that, I assign a midterm exam in which students must write well-organized paragraphs using at least two of these methods. Because students have practiced similar tasks in class, they are already familiar with the test format and do not need to study other contents. As a result, these tests foster positive washback by reinforcing what they have learned in class.
Final Thoughts
This article examines 35 washback studies to offer practical suggestions for teachers on incorporating their findings into classroom instruction. Additionally, I share my own experiences in applying these insights to my teaching. By doing so, I hope to highlight the significance of washback in education and encourage teachers to consider its impact when designing assessments in their classes.
References
Alderson, J. C., & Wall, D. (1993). Does washback exist? Applied Linguistics, 14(2), 115–129. https://doi.org/10.1093/applin/14.2.115
Anand, P. (2018). Testing regime change as innovation: Washback potential over time [Unpublished doctoral dissertation]. Carleton University. https://doi.org/10.2215/etd/2018-13334
Choi, I.-C. (2008). The impact of EFL testing on EFL education in Korea. Language Testing, 25(1), 39–62. https://doi.org/10.1177/0265532207083744
Pearson, I. (1988). Tests as levers for change (or “Putting first things first"). In D. Chamberlain & R. Baumgardner (Eds.), ESP in the classroom: Practice and evaluation (pp. 98–107). Modern English Publications and The British Council.
Watanabe, Y. (2004). Teacher factors mediating washback. In L. Cheng, Y. Watanabe, & A. Curtis (Eds.), Washback in language testing: Research contexts and methods (pp. 129–146). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Davy Tran has a PhD in Culture, Literacy and Language from the University of Texas at San Antonio and an MA in TESOL from Missouri State University. Her research focuses on language assessments and academic writing. She’s currently a lecturer at the University of Virginia and has been teaching ESL in Vietnam and the US for 15 years.