Revisiting Bilinguals’ Writing Abilities from a Correlational Lens
Abdu Al-Kadi, University of Bergen, Norway
Statement of the Research Problem
Learning foreign languages in complete isolation from the learners’ first language is no longer acceptable. It is widely accepted now that using L1 in learning other languages is good for building on learners’ first language background (Forbes, 2021; Orcasitas-Vicandi et al., 2024). In this sense, multilingual learners are prepared to identify patterns in non-native languages thanks to their awareness of language properties and cognitive skills that they draw on for learning L2+. Researchers such as Wang et al. (2022) argued that L1 serves as the foundation for developing other target languages, as it provides a baseline for understanding language mechanism. This is particularly evident in writing more than in oral skills. In Meisel’s (2011) words, “human language faculty…comprises a priori knowledge about the structure of language” (p. 15), which implies a genetic transmission of language abilities. Perkins and Zhang (2022) showed that the development in neuroimaging and cognitive science enables a deeper understanding of how L1 influences L2 during neural activity and cognitive processing. These arguments do not shy away from the Interdependence Theory advocated by Chomsky and Cummins'(2008) Threshold Hypothesis of common underlying proficiency in basic skills of learning languages.
The fact is that the relationship between first and other languages, by its nature, is complex and requires more endeavor, at least in contexts where L1 and L2 belong to different language families— Arabic and English as an example in question. The present study is directed towards multilingualism of writing, on the ground that knowledge of multiple languages is helpful for learning additional languages. It bridges learners’ knowledge of L1 with their knowledge of L2 more effectively instead of learning L2 in isolation of learners’ mother tongue.
Research Design
A correlational research design was adopted to ascertain if there is a meaningful link between how well students do on an Arabic language (L1) test and their academic writing scores. The study considered this within a four-year English and Translation program at a private university in Yemen, where the researcher had an opportunity to access the participants in focus. At the time of the study, the number of students in every batch in the program was rather small. Hence, all the male and female students in the four years (batches) were selected (n=81). Their scores on English writing test (Variable 1) and achievement in Arabic (Variable 2) were singled out from their academic records for a correlational analysis, using the Pearson correlation test.
Proposed Solution
The correlational research design yields statistical findings to help language educators to understand the relationship between the two variables— learners' performance in Arabic and their writing skills in English, which are likely to be influenced by each other. This prompts educators to rethink how to enhance efficient learning of the target language based on learners' background in their first language.
Analysis of Results
Data obtained from students’ academic record analysis were treated quantitatively. The Pearson correlation test results showed a strong correlation between the two variables at p>0.01. This was clear in the second year (r=0.788), third year (r=0.764), and fourth year (r=0.643). In the first year, however, the correlation was weak (r=0.377). At entry level (Year 1), students are described in the program as having basic skills. A lack of correlation at this stage aligns with previous research, which suggests that learners with strong writing abilities in their L1 tend to transfer these skills to their L2 once they have earned a certain level of proficiency. Apparently, the transfer of writing skills starts once learners reach a certain level of proficiency in their second language learning—an argument rooted in Cummins'(2008) threshold hypothesis. This threshold level determines how well writing skills can be transferred. By and large, entry-level learners need more practice and exposure to the target language to increase their awareness of the target language features, similarities, and differences between L1 and L2+.
The sample’s scores on the Arabic achievement test revealed that learners with high cumulative scores in Arabic also achieved high marks on the academic writing test in English, despite both languages belonging to different language families. On the other hand, those with low cumulative scores in L1 scored poorly on the writing test. If we were to rely on this finding, it could be argued that students with high scores in L1 are, expectedly, more skilled in L2 writing. Nevertheless, there is a cautionary note at this point: all aspects of L2 writing should not be directly attributed to L1; some other variables, including the scoring system, learners’ motivation, and writing instructors, may bring about a change in learners’ writing skills. Importantly, a correlation is basically not a cause-effect relationship, and, for this reason, the correlational results can be taken as indicative rather than conclusive findings.
Significance to SLW
The study is significant in several ways. For language educators, learners’ performance in L1 may be considered an indicator of their expected performance in English. Because similarities and differences exist in human languages, language teachers may reconsider the relationship between L1 and L2, build on similarities, and work on the differences. When taking writing skills to the front, which is the focus of this study, prior experience with formal writing instruction in L1 likely influences interaction between the two languages. Tying the correlational results of the present study with existing literature helps in understanding L2 learners’ writing difficulties which could partially stem from poor writing in their L1. In the context of the current study, it could be argued that inability to produce well-written texts in English mirrors poor performance in Arabic as well. This suggests more attention to writing abilities in both L1 and L2. The study contributes to the on-going debate of multilingualism of writing. It is an addition to the growing body of research on L1 in L2 learning situations, a practice that has been stigmatized, for long, in the history of English teaching. Considering today’s multilingual online communication landscape, language educators and policymakers may want to reposition the mother tongue in language programs intended for L2 learners who are prepared for the international job market, which is by itself becoming more and more multilingual and largely dependent on writing in more than one language.
Final Reflections
Geared towards a multilingual approach to teaching formal writing skills and negotiating SLW strategies, the study supports a plurilingual approach to teaching English to non-native speakers. It expounds on triggering English through Arabic, rather than relying solely on a monolingual method which denies the learners’ mother tongue in L2 classrooms. Liberal uses of learners’ linguistic features of their first language in learning the target language is a resource for building on their linguistic repertoire of L1. It counts as a helpful strategy for learning foreign language learning as it allows learners to strategically shift between L1 and L2+ based on their full linguistic assets in all languages. With that said, a multilingual mindset supports a linguistically inclusive approach to teaching and learning foreign languages.
Given the statistical findings above, it can be argued that learners' performance in L1 (Arabic) gives a hint of learners' academic writing abilities in the second language (English), and this is helpful in deciding on the type of writing course the learners need, stages of writing progress where L1’s transfer could be more effective, teaching hours, and materials. It could also be the other way around: L2 may affect learning L1—a point that surfaced from this analysis and could be covered in future research. A correlational research design does not ascertain the direction of the relationship.
To establish a robust correlation between writing in L1 and L2, it is important to consider writing in L1 as one variable and writing in L2 as another. However, this was not feasible in this study because writing in Arabic was not taught as a separate course. Instead, it was included as part of a general required Arabic course within the program which is the focus of the present study. Hence, writing in L2 was correlated with achievement in Arabic in general, and this provides room for researchers in other contexts where writing in the mother tongue is taught separately to replicate the study.
It is high time language educators realized that in L2 learning contexts, learners’ L1 and L2+ overlap in their multilingual minds and usage. Learners’ common underlying linguistic repertoire supports more efficient second language learning. Accepting the mother tongue side by side with the target language gives ground to a plurilingual approach to teaching and learning foreign languages. Insofar as SLW is concerned, using learners’ first language(s) in a balanced manner can serve as a bridge to learning writing in L2. To realize multilingual writing, learners can write short essays, stories, or even social media posts in the target language, starting with topics they are comfortable with in their mother tongue. This could enhance their writing skills and boost their confidence, as they feel secure and supported knowing they can rely on their mother tongue while learning other languages.
References
Cummins, J. (2008). Teaching for transfer: Challenging the two solitudes assumption in bilingual education. In N.H. Hornberger (Ed.) Encyclopedia of language and education (pp. 1528-1538). Springer.
Meisel, J. (2011). First and second language acquisition: Parallels and differences. Cambridge University Press.
Orcasitas-Vicandi, M., Molás-Olalde, I., & Vázquez, K. F. (2024). Learning how to write using all our languages: A multilingual approach to literacy in primary education. International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism, 27(10), 1342–1359.
Perkins, K., & Zhang, L. J. (2022). The effect of first language transfer on second language acquisition and learning: From contrastive analysis to contemporary neuroimaging. RELC Journal, 55(1), 162–178.
Wang, H., Orosco, M. J., Peng, A., Long, H., Reed, D. K., & Swanson, H. L. (2022). The relation of bilingual cognitive skills to the second language writing performance of primary grade students. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 213, 105-123.
Abdu Al-Kadi, an associate professor of applied linguistics at Bergen University, has taught English for over two decades in EFL, ESL, and ESP contexts. His research interest lies in technology-based language learning, TESOL, multiliteracies, and SLA.